Earth and Space Science Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Earth and Space Science - Assignment Example The moon, bombarded by millions of meteorites and asteroids, is where Neil Armstrong's still tangible footprints are said to survive perhaps a million more years in the absence of air to change their form. Farther out, a traveler's curiosity is taken to an acquaintance with the planet named after the goddess of love and beauty for bearing a splendor as the solar system's brightest. Indeed the spectacular yellow clouds reflect the sunlight and the size and gravity of Venus is near that of the Earth's but the dazzling clouds are actually made of sulfuric acid and its atmosphere a noxious carbon-dioxide-concentrated air. With an unbearable pressure and temperature approaching 500Â °C, an experience of staying in it is nowhere as lonely as it is seen from afar or from an illusion which, once broken by reality, entails corrosion, suffocation, and destruction of a living matter. The possibility of life also becomes amply questionable at the sight of a global image, sun-scorched to 400Â ° C by midday yet acquires an extreme end of -170Â °C at nighttime. ... With over 5,000Â °C of hotness at the surface able to launch a nuclear reaction and tens of millions of degrees down its core, the Sun's power is far more than could possibly enter a wild pondering, as it turns millions of tons of matter into energy every second exceeding that made by man and blasting severe radiation onto the outer space through the electrified incandescent gases. Comets, being the documentary's additional exhibit, are depicted to be icy wastes of deep space whose tails extend to millions of kilometers. At a closer look, audience sees a vast dirty snowball covered in tar from which grains of an organic-looking parts disintegrate gradually. Much as the comets had been discovered of certain properties besides preservation in ice, the quest of astronauts and scientists has gone about prospecting Mars for any signs of life. Mars, a red and dead planet, looks as if it were a giant fossil with twirling devilish dusts presumably larger than the largest tornado that ever o ccurred on Earth. Though it is somewhat real close to capturing human imagination of familiarity and probable living, Mars is proven to contain too thin an air for breathing with significant levels of hazards caused by carbon dioxide everywhere. In it there is nothing to shield humans from the Sun's UV rays unlike the layer of ozone on this planet and protection against sickening coldness of -80Â °C neither exists. The dead planet, nevertheless, may be claimed to take pride in its immense ancient volcano that is three times the altitude of Mt. Everest and the seemingly 'grand canyon' land form which must have had some geological activities as evidenced with the way it looks in the presentation aided by the special apparatus in space.

Part 2 Theories of the Policy Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Part 2 Theories of the Policy Process - Essay Example Bentley's (1908) research offered preliminary insights on how advocacy groups affect the policy process. After Bentley's research, numerous studies on interest groups followed, with each study revealing the importance of interest groups to the policymaking process and the difficulty of measuring the impact of interest group influence on the policymaking process (Baumgartner & Leech, 1998, p. 45-46). In addition to interest groups, political scientists also emphasized the role of bureaucrats, policymakers, and the media in the policy process. All of these entities could influence a specific policy subsystem such as agricultural subsidy policy, pesticide regulatory policy, or any policy considered by policymakers. Over the course of 100 years, political scientists used case studies and quantitative analyses to further examine the impact of these variables on the policy process. By the late 1980s, this collection of research helped to provide the theoretical backdrop to models such as the ACF and PE that attempted to theorize about policy process. The ACF owes much of its intellectual heritage to research on the impact of interest groups on the policy process. This line of research started in the early 1900s and can be roughly divided into four eras. In the first era, lasting from 1900- 1930s, researchers examined the pressure tactics of groups and the impact of those tactics on the policy process. Significant works during this era included Arthur Bentley's (1908) The Process of Government. Bentley broadly theorized that groups compete against one another in order to influence governmental processes (p. 222,269). Although Bentley was not concerned with constructing specific theories on group activity, his research was the first to suggest that groups influenced the policy process. It also helped political scientists refocus their research efforts to other aspects of government aside from legalistic examinations of governing institutions (Bentley, 1908, p. 162). Similar works that examined the role of interest groups, or pressure groups as they were commonly known during this period, followed with each work examining the importance of interest groups in policymaking and reconciling that notion with theories of government and democracy (Griffith, 1939; Herring, 1929; Odegard, 1928; Schattschneider, 193 5; see also Cleveland, 19 13; Crawford, 1939; Croly, 19 15; Pollock, 1927; Zeller, 1937). Even more than Arthur Bentley, whose work was generally not even recognized until the 1950s, these researchers made the study of interest groups' impact on the policy process noteworthy (Garson, 1978, p. 77). However, it was not until the 1950s that interest group research really became important to political science. During this second era of research, lasting approximately from the 1940s- 1960s, the study of interest group influence on the policy process reached its scholarly zenith as the administrative size of the federal government increased. Research during this time period reaffirmed the importance of interest groups to policymaking (Griffith, 195 1 ; Latham, 1952; Truman, 1951 ; see also Key, 1952; McConnell, 1966). Some of the most influential research also extended the notion of interest group influence on the policy process to the notion that interest groups, policymakers, and agencies jointly controlled the policy proc

That higher education Essay Example for Free

That higher education Essay With all these guidelines for starters, it would be much possible for new learning program facilitators to come up with possible effective and efficient foundation in online teaching. On the other hand, the â€Å"E-Learning Revolution: How Technology is Driving a New Training Paradigm† by Martyn Sloman shows how much the Internet changed everything especially in the education industry. He says that the â€Å"virtual education has already taken over the systems of traditional learning and as well made great innovations on the learning process of the new generation† (2002, p 23). True, as earlier introduced in chapter one, the existence of virtual learning programs really made great changes on the existence of educational systems in the society. â€Å"Aside from the practicality and other benefits offered by this system of learning, the new generation realizes the importance of time and thus they take the necessary steps needed to finish their degrees through online universities† (Sloman, 2002, p 24). In this way, not only do they finish early, but they also learn how to manage their time wisely. True, the challenges of training people through the use of technological advancements are rather huge. But as Arthur Langer said in his authored book â€Å"IT and Organizational Learning†, â€Å"training using the Internet is really a challenge especially for beginners, but once the effective foundations of learning in traditional classrooms would be integrated with the high-tech effects brought about by the Internet, learning through this innovative design of education could be well considered worth while† (2001, p 14). As an addition to this, Robert Seidel said that Virtual education is indeed becoming a phenomenon already. According to him in his book â€Å"Virtual Reality, Training’s Future? : Perspectives on Virtual Reality and Related Emerging Technologies†, â€Å"Virtual education has already taken full control of many educational institutions there are today. Indeed, even companies are taking their steps in making online trainings a possible way of enriching their employees’ skills for their chosen careers both for individual and company satisfaction† (1997, p 45). Seidel also adds: â€Å"Virtual reality is a simple and natural extension to proceed in learning without boundaries to the virtual environment, as well as being able to completely enjoy the provisions of the virtual world in enriching the industry and strategies used in education† (1997, p 48). Yes, the virtual world had already made a great impact on the ways in which the present generation prefers to learn and earn their college degrees. Indeed, as introduced earlier, the idea of establishing virtual education providers came from the traditional learning aided by distance learning providers even before the development of computers. Naturally, the past forms of distance education were mostly done through correspondence and the use of telecommunication processes. Certainly, technology has obviously revolutionized the ways by which the handling off information through higher level of learning is being processed. Most likely, the integration of technology within the system heightened the capability of the institutions making up the said industry to provide the best possible entities and values available in their service towards the personal advancement of their students.

The Use Of Sewage Sludge As A Fertilizer Environmental Sciences Essay

The Use Of Sewage Sludge As A Fertilizer Environmental Sciences Essay Fertilizers necessary for the maintenance and increase of soil productivity are classified into two categories: 1) organic fertilizers consisted of crop residues, sludge and manure, and 2) inorganic fertilizers which are synthetic fertilizers consisted of 3 key elements: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (Merrington, 2002). Organic Fertilizers Sludge Sewage sludge also known as bio-solid is the remainder product of domestic or urban waste water cleaning at waste water treatment plants. It has high levels of organic content as well as plant nutrients. Although it would make a good fertilizer, the pollutant capability of sewage sludge is high as it is also composed of industrial waste (Merrington, 2002). The process where sewage sludge or materials obtained from it are sprayed, injected or spread on land is defined as land application. It is applied on or below agricultural land surface, forests and lawns because it is high in nutrient content and can enhance soil quality (EPA, 1994). In addition, it serves as a fertilizer supplying the necessary nutrients for crops and other vegetation. Sewage is applied in bulk meaning in large amounts by commercial and municipal appliers for various purposes such as agriculture, golf courses and recovery of mining sites (EPA, 1994). In sites such as mining sites which are completely destroyed and barely have soil substrate for vegetation, nitrogen and organic material content need to be higher than normal level before the site is seeded. For the use of sewage sludge in home gardens or lawns, it is available in a bag or small container intended for small-scale use (EPA, 1994). In the use of sewage sludge, it is crucial to keep in mind the negative impacts it can have if not utilized properly. Nitrates which are easily soluble and have high potential for contamination make up majority of the sewage sludge components (EPA, 1994). As a result, great care is taken in its application and the applier as to fulfill requirements set by the government. Although sewage sludge is applied on land to enhance quality of soil, it is also used as a technique for disposing land (EPA, 1994). Sewage sludge is supplied by water companies for famers to use on their land. Although it contains toxic elements, it still has beneficial effects. According to a study done, farmers who use sewage sludge as fertiliser have a saving of 15 million pounds yearly as it contains high levels of nitrogen and phosphorous as well as necessary micronutrients. In addition, it enhances the structure as well as water retention capacity of soil through the organic matter it supplies (Stout, 1979). Usage of sewage sludge as a fertilizer is not a concept that is applied in many regions of the world. Although before application of sludge on land, it undergoes treatment such as anaerobic digestion to have low pathogen count it still contains potentially dangerous contaminants such as copper, cadmium, zinc, PAHs and PCBs. The amount of contaminants present in sewage sludge is dependent upon the source of the sludge (Merrington, 2002). Toxic metals forming a large component of sludge is a well known fact however, the level at which those metals become harmful is the point of debate (Renner, 2001). As a result, some countries are becoming more restricting or banning to protect the health of individuals. Research compiled indicates that individuals who live in areas within 1 km of land-application sites have been found to show irritation of the eyes, throat, skin and lungs preceding exposure to wind from fields that have had sludge applied. It was found that Staphylococcus aureus was the bacteria involved in the irritations observed on exposed individuals. Although sewage sludge may be low in pathogen count, it is crucial to take into consideration possible interaction of pathogen with chemical contaminants and as a result becoming unsafe for the health of individuals (Lewis, 2002). Manure Manure is composed of three key elements; nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These elements are a necessity for the growth of plants as well as the enhancement of soil quality through increasing organic matter and water-holding capacity. In addition, acidity is neutralized and compaction is reduced. Manure serves as a great substitute for synthetic fertilizers whose prices increased dramatically in the recent years (MacDonald, 2009). Land application of manure is possible either by grazing animals or transportation from manure storage facilities. Study found that nitrogenous commercial fertilizer doubled in prices in the 2000- 2007 timeframe and then increased again by 62% in between December 2007 and September 2008. Moreover, phosphate commercial fertilizer prices have increased by 115% in the 2000- 2007 timeframe followed by 177% increase between December 2007 and September 2008 (MacDonald, 2009). Although those high prices make manure more appealing, there are limitations that come along with the use of manure. Manure transportation is pricey even if it is not transported very far. (MacDonald, 2009) In addition, manure may not be composed of the exact combination of nutrients required for the growth of specific crops or fields. Moreover, waste that can be transmitted through runoff of nutrients, pathogens and organic matter from land to surface water pose great environmental as well as health risks. Leaching of nutrients and pathogens to ground water, volatile gases and odours contaminating the atmosphere are additional problems faced (MacDonald, 2009). According to the regulations, industrialized livestock production cannot concentrate manure on limited acres as that would exceed the acceptable limits. As a result, it becomes necessary to distribute manure into larger land which in turn requires better transportation as well as application techniques. Storage of manure before it is applied on land can result in problems such as flooding, manure odour and seepage (MacDonald, 2009). Inorganic Fertilizers Nitrogen Nitrogenous fertilizers are a result of combining atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen to yield final product ammonia. Ammonia is the base found in at least 90% of fertilizers. It is found in the U.S.A. 38% of the ammonia produced is used for fertilizers while the remaining is utilized for the production of Urea. Urea production has increased over the years with an 11% increase from 1967 to 1973 and has become reliable nitrogen source. Hydrogen required can be obtained from varied sources such as natural gas, fuel oil, coal, naphtha and hydrolized water (Stout, 1981). The following chemical equation represents formation of nitrogenous fertilizers 2N + 3H2 -> 2NH3 There is a continuous increase in the use of inorganic fertilizers despite the fact that they require large quantity of energy to produce. Table 11 below displays the use of oil and natural gas for nitrogen fertilizers worldwide. Developed countries utilized approximately four times as much oil and natural gas for nitrogen fertilizer in 1975 (Stout, 1981). Research has shown the greater use of fertilizers in the developed nations has increased yields per hectare. Phosphate Phosphate fertilizers are produced by the use of phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid to decompose phosphate rock. If nitric acid is used further treatment with ammonia is required for it to be utilized as a fertilizer. Although there is lots of phosphate rock available, there are environmental problems associated with mining of those rocks for the production of fertilizers. The sulphur necessary for carrying out the process is obtained from ore-deposit or a by-product of other process. Use of sulphuric acid is very efficient but has the downside of producing large amount of sulphate waste resulting in environmental problems. In addition, world reserve of ore is being depleted and obtaining sulphur from the by-products of other processes is very costly (Stout, 1981). Research shows there is a minimum of 90 * 10^8 metric tons of phosphate rock found in the world and because production in 1972 was only about 13* 10^6 metric tons, there is no concern that phosphate reserves will be diminishing for a while. However, there are environmental problems associated in the mining of phosphate rock such as temporary demolition of land and soil erosion (Stout, 1981). According to the table below it can be seen that phosphate recovery is relatively cheap in North America and Africa followed by Europe while obtaining phosphorous from region such as Oceania, South America and Asia is more costly. Potassium Potassium is the 7th most abundant element in the world and is widely dispersed throughout the world. It is found in soils, rivers, lakes and rocks. Studies have shown that 95% of potash required for production of potassium fertilizers is obtained from underground mines where deposits are 3, 000 feet below the surface in Saskatchewan and 2,500 feet below the surface (Production and Use of Potassium, 1998). There are potassium deposits that are isolated in few parts of the world. Canada, Germany and U.S.S.R. are the top three countries with the highest level of potassium resources. Consumption of potash has exceeded demand over the years (Production and Use of Potassium, 1998). However, research shows that will change in the future and Canada having high potash resources is willing to increase production to meet demand requirements (Stout, 1981). The following table depicts potash distribution in various regions of the world with Canada having the highest in mine production as well as reserve base. Comparisons Between Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers Manure Versus Inorganic Fertilizers Organic and inorganic fertilizers both have their advantages and disadvantages. The following table compares the nutrient content of manure and inorganic fertilizer. It is observed that the level of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are significantly higher in fertilizer as opposed to manure. Animal and human excrements contain lower levels of the key 3 elements required for growth. The nutrient content of animal excrement is variable and is dependent upon factors such as type of species and the type of nutrient of feed (Stout, 1981). Sludge Versus Inorganic Fertilizer (Nitrogen Fertilizer) Many studies have been done to test the effect of sludges, synthetic fertilizers and manures on the final yield of crops. Given the same level of water and nutrients, the use of sludges, fertilizers or manure did not have any large impact on crop yield. However, in the long term, due to the presence of micronutrients in sludges, there is potential for damage if metals such as copper, nickel and zinc accumulate (Harrison, 2003). A study was performed to determine the amount of bio-solids necessary to replace nitrogen fertilizer. Different rates of sewage sludge and nitrogen fertilizer were applied in 6 different farms through discing a technique used to turn and loosen the soil in order to prevent the loss of ammonia nitrogen as much as possible. It is important to apply other nutrients to all areas to ensure nitrogen as the only limiting nutrient (Binder, 2009). The above graph shows that sites receiving more sludge (site four and six) had higher yields in comparison to sites that received nitrogen fertilizer. It can be observed that there was minute response to nitrogen fertilizers in all three sites. Results can be explained by the presence of nutrients found in sludge that are not present in nitrogen fertilizers (Binder, 2009). Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages of organic fertilizers Rapid decomposition of organic fertilizers makes nutrients highly available. Organic fertilizers are bulky and readily available. Energy is not directly needed in the manufacturing process and they are highly renewable. In addition, they also have little direct cost and provide a method to dispose waste. Although they dont have high amounts of the three key elements they have other minerals that are not found in synthetic fertilizers that contribute in increased water retention capability of soil, its structure and its resistance to erosion. (Morris, 2007) Disadvantage of organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers are not very high in nutrient and analysis of components is not very precise. Decomposition of organic material cannot be controlled as it is dependent on temperature and soil moisture. This results in the release of nutrients when they are not needed. It is very difficult to meet necessary nutrient levels for crop growth solely through the use of organic fertilizers. Waste from humans and animals consist of disease causing microorganisms and therefore need to be disposed of safely (Morris, 2007). Advantage of inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers on the other hand are very high in nutrient concentration and transportation of handling is fairly easy. In addition, it is analysis of content is very precise and can utilize waste from other manufacturing process (Morris, 2007). Disadvantage of inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers have increasing cost and are produced from finite resources. It requires large use of energy for manufacturing. Unlike organic fertilizers, availability is dependent on production, cost and region. Moreover, inorganic fertilizers create waste in processing. Although both organic and inorganic fertilizers contribute to water pollution, the manufacturing process of inorganic fertilizers alone results in water pollution. Nitrates pose a big threat due to the increased algae growth in lakes and water supplies. Phosphate fertilizers also have fluorides and sulphur oxides as a by-product (Morris, 2007). Blue-baby syndrome resulting in babies having pale/blue skin as well as lethargic eyes is caused by nitrates found in organic fertilizers contaminating drinking water. Other reproduction problems are also caused as a result of inorganic fertilizers (Morris, 2007). Nitrates from inorganic fertilizers pose a big threat due to the increased algae growth in lakes and water supplies. Algal Blooms result in formation of increased biomass, decreased sunlight to plants found in water, decreased oxygen levels and disruption of food webs. As a result, it is an issue requires great care (Morris, 2007). Regulations and Safety Although animal manure serves as a great fertiliser and soil amendment it has risks associated with it as it can exceed limits resulting in severe environmental problems. To deal with these problems government has ensured to have regulation and conservation programs. In some states there have been lawsuits initiated against livestock operations as a result of damaging water resources from manure (MacDonald, 2009). To meet the requirements of those regulations the livestock operations have to deal with increased costs and as a result it is predicted there will be changes made to manure use. Prices are dependent on the excess manure that needs to be disposed. In addition, if farmers are not willing to take in manure for use in their cropland livestock producers must transport the excess manure farther to use for their crop (MacDonald, 2009). It is absolutely necessary to ensure that sewage sludge applied does not cause any harm to the environment or humans. To ensure safety, requirements that must be met before application have been prepared although they differ from region to region. The following table presents the requirements set by Maryland Department of Environment for application of sewage sludge (OMalley, 2009). In addition, acceptable maximum concentrations of contaminants found in sludge to be applied in land have also been set by the NYSDEC. Cumulative limits represent the maximum level of chemical that can be applied in land repeatedly and over time. The following table displays acceptable limits for various types of contaminants (Harrison, 2003). Restrictions set by NYSDEC for applying Class B sludges makes certain that appliers obtain permits specifically for the sites they want to utilize which also includes acceptable limits of contaminants. Nitrogen levels should also not exceed limits. A mandatory waiting period of 14 months in the case of above ground crops and 38 months in the case of below ground crops have been set by NYSDEC. It is recommended that appliers check with their local regulations as it may vary from region to region (Harrison, 2003). Conclusion In this section we have talked about how organic fertilizers are compared to inorganic fertilizers, including the advantages and disadvantages of each. Sewage sludge is categorized as an organic fertilizer. It is a good fertilizer because of the amount of nutrients it contains. However, regulations are made to ensure that its application is safe to us, animals, and the environment because sewage sludge also contains many dangerous contaminants. In Conclusion The purpose of this report is to provide information about the compositions, the treatments, and the applications of sewage sludge. Sewage sludge comes from wastewater filtration and is often perceived as environmental waste that needs to be eliminated. However, sewage sludge can be used as a fertilizer in agriculture because of the nutrients it contains. The only downside is that sewage sludge also contains many toxic and dangerous substances that must be limited or removed before it can be safely used. Many treatments were developed to limit these toxins and pathogens. Government also made regulations on the applications of sewage sludge to protect the environment. Overall, sewage sludge plays a role in our life and environment. Understanding the importance of sewage sludge makes us appreciate its existence as more than just a mere waste.

How The Brain Works Essay -- Anatomy, Nervous System

Current research shows that mental events cause physical events, and scientists believe examining single nerves is the key to understanding how the brain works as a complete unit. Understanding the brain at the nerve cell level will allow scientists to understand how human consciousness works (Blakeslee, 1992). Furthermore, the brain's thalamus is identified as the possible sensory connector because it fires 40 impulses per second that sweep through the entire brain (Blakeslee, 1995a). These findings are a serious implication to Dualism because it states the mind is not physical. If the mind is not physical, it cannot affect the physical body, so the Dualist theory of two-sided interactions between the body and mind are false. The aforementioned argument is supported by many other scientific facts and objections against Dualism. For example, phantom pain is a well-known phenomenon in medicine. When people lose a limb, they will often feel painful spasms in parts that no longer exist. Although neuroscience is still developing, scientists assume sensory conflict is responsible for this phenomenon (Blakeslee, 1995b). The brain remembers the nerves going to the missing limb and their previous function, so it can issue orders through those nerves. However, the nerves will not get feedback from the muscles in the non-existent limb, so the brain stops the movement forcibly (Blakeslee, 1995b). Over time, the brain makes new nervous pathways and adapts to the new geography of the body (Blakeslee, 1995b), so the person's perception changes and phantom pain no longer persists. Phantom pain is only one example of how the brain is linked to the consciousness. Every perception in the environment and every physical action causes changes in t... ...p paralysis prevents the body from moving while the mind dreams. In conclusion, the mind is non-physical, but there must be a common link between the body and mind because several examples show their interaction. Perhaps the image of the body and the mind as entities responsible for our ability to act in the external and the internal world (Ryle, 1949) is correct, but it is missing the brain as the link. The brain is obviously the meeting point which perceives sensations from both the external and the internal world. The mind functions in the internal world and provides thoughts to the brain. The body functions in the external world and provides sensory input to the brain. The brain combines both inputs and distributes them among the body and the mind. This is how the body and mind are able to interact even though the mind is immaterial and the body is material.

The Museum Experience :: Free Descriptive Essay About A Place

The Museum Experience One of my favorite things to do when traveling in a new city is to visit the museums. I have never been to a city that did not offer the usual museum fare, usually in the form of the â€Å"Anytown Art Museum†, or the â€Å"Anytown Museum of Natural History†. While these types of museums house some incredible artifacts, and I do visit them often, I also like to seek out museums of a more unusual sort. Museums are mostly the same just about everywhere you go, both in the United States and Europe. They offer the visitor a glimpse into the past culture of any given city or country by displaying relics found throughout the world. But there are also many museums that showcase artifacts of the culture in a much more specific way. Some fine examples of these kinds of museums include the Pez Museum, close to San Francisco, dedicated to the little candy dispenser, the Muzeum hracek in Prague, dedicated to toys of the world, both past and present, the Dungeon, a history of Medieval torture, also in Prague, and the Liberace Museum in Las Vegas, dedicated to all things Liberace--and I mean all things. The Pez Museum is not actually in San Francisco, but is located south of the city in a town called Burlingame. If you are in the Bay Area for any reason, do not miss this museum! Remember when you were a little kid, and you loved to collect Pez dispensers? Well, times have changed, and now Pez collections mean big money, and big business. The most expensive Pez dispenser to dat e is the short lived Mr. Potato Head dispenser, complete with a make-it-yourself face. This Pezsells for $5,000 at auction! This museum contains literally hundreds of Pez Dispensers, collected since their inception back in the Fifties. While Pez may not compare to a Rodin sculpture in terms of being considered classical art, obviously there are some people out there who appreciate the finer nuances of a mere candy dispenser. Toy museums abound throughout the world. I have been lucky enough to have visited two toy museums in my life, both in Europe. The first one was in a quaint town in Germany called Rothenburg. This town dates back to the Medieval era, and is one of the few towns in Western Europe that is still contained within it’s original defense walls. Because most of the buildings inside the walls are original, this town has become a major tourist attraction for European tourists.

Biomagnification Lab Report Essay

PROCEDURE The pile of M&M’s represents the phytoplankton population in a lake. The printed â€Å"M† on the candy represents the amount of DDT (in ppm) the algae ingested from pesticide runoff from a nearby agricultural area. There are 100 M&M’s in the pile. Each circle below represents on phytoplankton. Mark the amount of toxin each phytoplankton has ingested. If there is a full â€Å"M† stamped on the candy then that phytoplankton has ingested 1 ppm of DDT, so write â€Å"1† in one of the circles below. If there is no â€Å"M† on the candy then that phytoplankton did not ingest any DDT so write a â€Å"O† in one of the circles below. If there is a partial â€Å"M† on the candy then estimate how much of the â€Å"M† there is. For example, if there is only on hump of the â€Å"M† then that would equal  ½ a unit of DDT ingested by that phytoplankton so you would fill in one of the circles below with  ½. Zooplankton in the lake (population size 20) each eat 5 algae. Move 5 M&M’s into each of the zooplankton cups. Record the amount of DDT each zooplankton has ingested using the instructions from step 1. Write these amounts onto the individual copepod pictures below. Minnows (population size 5) in the lake each eat 4 zooplankton, ingesting energy and the toxin that is stored in the zooplankton as well. Move the correct number of M&M’s from the zooplankton cups into the minnows cups. Record the amount of DDT ingested by each of the small fish onto the fish below using the instructions from step 1 to  calculate the total amount of each fish. Two eels then come along for dinner. One eels eats 2 minnows and the other eel eats 3 minnows. Move the correct number of M&M’s from the minnow cups into the eel cups. Write the amount of DDT ingested by the each eel onto the pictures below. Use the instructions from step 1 to calculate the total amount of DDT for each. Finally, an osprey flies by and eats both eels. Move the correct number of M&M’s from the eel cups into the osprey bowl. Calculate and then write the total amount of DDT ingested by the osprey onto the picture below. OBJECTIVES Visualize the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Distinguish between the similar concepts of bioaccumulation and biomagnification using a mathematical model. Calculate the amount of energy gained/lost through the energy transfers of a typical food chain. Review trophic level names and energy characteristics. BACKGROUND DDT was the first synthesized insect pesticide that was widely used throughout the globe after the WW II. In the case of numerous African nations, this pesticide proved its soaring popularity due to its primordial ability to fend off disease-carrying mosquitoes. While it still does not change the fact that mosquitoes posed a noteworthy threat to the globe’s health, the situations regarding the contagious Malaria flu reached its peak in African nations. Therefore, naturally, people began to use this pesticide in order to kill off all the mosquitoes within the vicinity of their respective habitats. However, chaotic consequences ensued. The organisms in the numerous African ecosystems began to assimilate toxic substances into their bodies, resulting in greater environmental harm along with enhanced pollutions. One dominant example would be birds. Most species of birds need numerous substantial provisions of calcium in order to lay healthy eggs. However, because of the growing amount of toxins, the eggs won’t hatch properly. And, even if it does, the baby birds will either live to see the next sunrise before their deaths or die immediately. This caused a sharp population decline for bird  species such as Osprey, Brown Pelicans, and Bald Eagles. Fortunately, the American government recognized the potential threat of this pesticide relatively early, responding by banning the commercial use of this organochlorine pesticide. In or der to prevent this situation from blooming into a full-scale crisis, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was introduced at the Conference of Plenipotentiaries to try and eliminate and/or control the use of DDT and other POPs around the world. This convention received over 150 countries’ consensus, thus banning the use of DDT at all costs. PROCESSING WITH TABLES The above tables represent the total sets of data that I have gathered during my lab. Disregarding the semi-tables that display the process of calculations, the first column of my table depicts the average amount of DDT ingestion for each and every species. Since I knew the formula to get the said data, I was able to process this column with comparably more ease than the other ones. The second column depicts the amount of energy for one  species under each category. For example, only one phytoplankton contains 200 kcal within its body. Likewise, that column of my table depicts the amount of energy that each individual of the species have within their bodies. The next column, column C, shows the total amount of energy for each and every categories through kcal. For instance, there are 100 phytoplanktons in the lake. Each phytoplankton contains 200 kcal of energy within their bodies. Therefore, if you multiply 200 with 100, you get the total amount of energy which is 20000. The last column basically illustrates the name of the trophic level the species belong in this lab. You can see that the phytoplanktons, which are a type of green algae, is the primary produce that supports that entire ecosystem through its ability of photosynthesis. Next, you can see that copepods are the primary producers, or herbivore, that eat the phytoplanktons. The copepods are eaten by a small fish known as the minnows, and they mark the place of the secondary consumers. Next, the eels come as tertiary consumers due to their predation on the minnows. However, the top, or quaternary, consumer would be the osprey in this case. Osprey feeds on eels, and there are no other predators that hunt ospreys in this lab. DATA ANALYSIS Summary of Data Trends Compare the amount of DDT found in the osprey with the amount of toxin found in one phytoplankton. Be specific. Discuss numerical evidence.  The amount of DDT found in the osprey with the amount found in one phytoplankton are vastly different to say the very least. In phytoplankton, the average amount of consumed DDT is about 0.28 ppm. This contrasts greatly to the one measured from the osprey, for they have the total amount of 28 ppm of DDT ingested within its body. While it still does not change the fact that phytoplanktons are the ones who directly consume DDT from their surrounding environment, it is surprising to note that the actual amount of toxins are far less than those of one osprey. The calculations reveal that one osprey have about 10 times more ppm of DDT inside its body than one phytoplankton. This is due to the process of biomagnification, which states that as the predation progresses higher up in the food chain, the amount of absorbed toxins will only augment. Write a paragraph where you compare and contrast what your pyramids tell you. Discuss similarities and difference between the pyramids, above and beyond the obvious. Do the various shaped make sense, given what you know about food chains in general and biomagnifications? Why or why not? First, there are three drawn pyramids: Energy, Typical, and Number. Energy pyramid basically depicts the flow of energy through the food chain using indicative arrows. This will contribute in displaying how the energy is lost and gained as the predation commences. It is obviously important to know the concept of energy pyramid, for it complements the theory that states that the majority of the gained energy is lost in order to maintain metabolism for most of the organisms. Number pyramid depicts the number of each organisms per trophic level. This pyramid is quite interesting because this pyramid is the only one showing the estimated quantity of the organisms in an ecosystem. Notice how many phytoplanktons are required to maintain and feed one osprey. Likewise, there has to be producers of vastly greater numbers in order to sustain only a few of the top consumers. Not only that, but the number of organisms shows a significant decline as the trophic level progresses, proving the fact that each trophic level requires more of its previous trophic level to maintain its population as a whole. A typical ecological pyramid shows the most fundamental relationships through the depiction of a food chain. All it shows are the designated trophic levels such as the producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, and so on. The shapes of the pyramid are usually a triangle. This shapes pretty much works for nearly all the cases. and I believe the shapes depicted by the three pyramids do make sense. To specify, the triangle becomes steeper and narrower as the trophic level progresses. Numerically and diagrammatically, the shape of a triangle will be fit to satisfy all three food pyramids. OBSERVATION During the data that I have collected, a clear augmentation of the amount of toxins are easy to recognize throughout. This is because of the process known as the biomagnification. As you can see from the table, the amount of absorbed toxins are continuously increasing through additional trophic  levels. This undoubtedly demonstrates the said theory while illuminating the fact that DDT is a fat-soluble pollutant, therefore proving it impossibly difficult to secret through waste. My observations state that the amount of acquired energy are dwindling as the trophic level progresses. This is clearly due to the 10% rule, which states that the existing trophic level will only be able to obtain only the 10% of the energy previously obtained by its predecessor. This is due to the fact that energy, once gathered, are extremely expendable by variety of methods. The organisms tend to use most of its gathered energies before being consumed by its predators, therefore bequeathing only a few per centage of its primary energy. With that said, notice how the osprey, the top dog of the food chain, received the most toxin with the least energy. CONCLUSION In conclusion, I have learned that the process of biomagnification along with accumulation can have a dramatic impact on an ecosystem as a whole. Since this lab primarily deemed DDT as the pesticide at hand, I was also able to read the briefed version of its history while understanding the harmful effects it has on the ecosystems and the organisms as a whole. Furthermore, I was also acquainted with a few conceptions in regards to calculating the total energy while at the same time applying the 10% rule for the energy reductions. It was a very worthwhile experience to know how much of a real-world problem these chemical regulations are as well as the everlasting impacts of the fat-soluble pollutants that continue to plague numerous ecosystems even today. Not only that, I learned to visualize the processes of bioaccumulation and magnification while being able to distinguish between the two using both scientific and mathematical models. Finally, even though I am already familiar with th is concept, it was quite refreshing to bring in the names and levels of trophic levels into this lab. I was able to connect the said knowledge directly to the topic that I am dealing right now. With that said, I believe I have gathered more than sufficient information that would aid me in the future regarding the concepts of biomagnification and accumulation. EVALUATION Overall, this was a decent lab that served its purpose of demonstrating the concepts regarding the process of bioaccumulation along with magnification. The lab provided sufficient background information, and the procedures were concise and easy to understand. However, I would like to make it clear that this lab could’ve been more productive and exciting if made online and virtual. Due to the fact that this activity was error-sensitive, the lab itself was very emotionally-provocative. I personally made one big error in regards to counting, and my group was forced to redo the whole counting again in the hopes of getting it finally correct. Frustrated would be the least of what I truly felt during the process of redoing. Therefore, this lab could’ve been shaped into a much better activity if I get to do it with my laptop. This will surely save a lot of time while at the same time be a bit less annoying and tedious. Furthermore, doing this lab on a computer will also grant anyone an easier access to Google Drive or any means of recording medium. Through these basic amenities, I could always jot down things that compose my lab report there and then. Doing this entire lab physically with all the tokens and bowls will be troublesome to say the least. It would be way better if this lab was translated electronically onto a computer.