Body language Essay Example for Free

Body language Essay Gestures- an example of an gesture would be a thumbs up to refer to well done. I tried to use hand gesture to help the women to understand what I was saying.  Body language body language is a broad term for forms of communication using body movements or gestures instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of communication. It forms part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal language. This includes the most subtle of movements that many people are not aware of, including winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. I tried to adapt to Egan theory of SOLER by leaning forward to show that I was interested. Listening- if we are not talking we are listening to what others are saying and trying to understand there views our body language can tell if we are listening to a persons whenever any body was talking I would lean forward to shows that I am interested. Because it was an group interactions I had to give other people the chance to talk and t get their opinion across  * Expression- facial expression can send very complex message that can be read easily. I tried to use a good facial expression to make her feel comfortable and welcomed. Eye contact Eye contact is the event when two people look at each others eyes at the same time. I kept good eye contact with her to show that I was actually listening and with the other members of the group  One 2 one seven year old boy  Verbal-  Tone /Pitch its not just what we say, but the way we say it. If we were to talk very fast in a loud voice with a fixed voice tone,  people may think that we are angry and shouting. I did not shout at the seven year old boy and I talk out a tone and pitch in which he could hear clearly. Slangs and jargons- I did not use slang in my dialect. This is because slang is mostly associated with teenagers and also he may not understand what I was saying  Pace the pace is the speed in which I talk. I can talk fast and I can talk slow. Because he is a kid I had to talk slow so that she can understand  Non verbal  Gestures- an example of an gesture would be a thumbs up to refer to well done. I tried to use hand gesture to help the boy to understand what I was saying and also used hand gesture when I had to take the boy to the toilet I had to hold his hands. Body language -. This includes the most subtle of movements that many people are not aware of, including winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. I tried to adapt to Egan theory of SOLER by leaning forward to show that I was interested. I did not stand over him Listening- if we are not talking we are listening to what others are saying and trying to understand there views our body language can tell if we are listening to a persons whenever any body was talking I would lean forward to shows that I am interested. Because it was an group interactions I had to give other people the chance to talk and t get their opinion across. Expression- facial expression can send very complex message that can be read easily. I tried to use a good facial expression to make him feel comfortable and welcomed by smiling a lot.  Eye contact Eye contact is the event when two people look at each others eyes at the same time. I kept good eye contact with him to show that I was actually listening to him.  The care value base is very important. The care value base is used widely in the field of health , social care and early years. The care value base is used to describe a set of principles that were thought to be relevant to the health and social care practitioners. The care value base can be used as an ethnical guide to decision making and practice in health, social care and early years setting. The care value base is used to be certain that care works or practitioners are not discriminating, being unkind, or providing poor care for their patients or service users The care value base covers five main areas:  1. Promoting anti-discriminatory practice  2. Maintaining confidentiality  3. Promoting and supporting individuals rights and respect  4. Acknowledging individuals personal beliefs and identities  5. Promoting effective communication  The care value base can form part of a code of conduct, or a professional code of ethics for anyone working in a caring profession. The car value base has become more important due to the fact the country has become more and more multicultural and ethnically diverse. Also there more people with disability. Laws have been passed which prohibit discrimination on the grounds of race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, disability etc. is therefore vital that people do not feel discriminated against when they are using care services.

McDonalds change process in supply chain management

McDonalds change process in supply chain management Our project is based upon the organization McDonalds and their change process in supply chain management in order to succeed in Indian market. We first look to the background of our company and the need of change them we see its strengths and weaknesses. We will also see its major competitors and how they are doing. After this part is covered we will see the important stakeholders in our organization and the way they have helped the organization to execute the change process. Then we have applied the Force Field Model and 3 step model of Kotters to support our topic. And in the end we use 8 Step Model to show the necessary change our organization needs in order to be competitive. Introduction In todays world McDonalds is a tantamount in fast food industry. McDonalds is well known and renowned with a good brand image around whole globe. It has 120 restaurants that provide fast food all over the globe serving around fifty-four million customers every day and has its headquarters in US. The McDonalds serves its customers with burgers and other fast food variety products. It also serves other food products like French fries, Big Mac, Quarter Pounder, Chicken Nuggets and Egg McMuffin. It has a viewpoint of providing one world with one burger. It does maintain a very high standard in price and quality issues. Its name is the biggest in the world in fast food industry. The reason why I have selected McDonalds for change management process is because they are such vast and huge and do maintain a high standard that requires a very good supply chain management. Thus the change process of supply chain management will help them Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) which is a systematic approach of saving them from food wastage. Controlling this can help them maintain good food and quality with pricing issue in the India. Task 1(a) Discuss the background to change that exists in todays economy that motivated your organisation to consider Change. In todays world all fast food industries want to have good service providing hygienic food with affordable price at good quality. In order to maintain this circumstance all fast food industry wants to have a very good inventory management. During the past few decades because of globalization, information technology and outsourcing have changed the way in which we look and maintain inventory. Traditionally the companies would focus on supply network inputs and outputs of the process. But because of globalization supply change management has been drastically been changed with concepts of Just in time, lead management and Agile manufacturing which has helped to reduce communication costs and transaction costs. Hence McDonalds went for similar concept of using functions of supply change management. With McDonalds having such a vast reach globally needed to maintain its supply chain management and quality issues. By doing so they saved their costs considerably. Todays supply chain management also contains concepts of customer relation management, Procurement, Product development and commercialization, Manufacturing flow management/support and many more which help the company maintaining good supply chain management in order to work efficiently. Thus by following all these concepts of supply chain management McDonalds felt that they would grow at a faster rate with saving a lots of cash and getting more effective and efficient in Indian Market. In order to maintain successful supply chain management maintaining change would help them grow bigger and better. By following the method SCM and its quality management function of it has given them earn great profits in Indian Market. Task 1(b) Theoretically Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of bureaucratic organizations Strengths of McDonalds: McDonalds has many advantages this is simply because it is the one of the oldest fast food industry which has a good reputation all over the world. Also the brand name of McDonalds is very good this is because of its specifications in providing fast food items. With McDonalds providing burgers, French fries, etc. and many more items which are well known and loved by the customers all over the world. It does also posses good staff and very good management team which is their strength. It also offers its customer with choice, at reasonable price and superb service. Also it is spread over all geographic locations of the world with a reputation of maintaining good quality and price. It does provide meals to its customers in different parts of globe according to the taste of the local people with its burgers and fries. Their innovation helps them in maintaining good customer relations and retaining them. Each and every McDonalds restaurant has duplication and systemization of products. They also serve only branded items like Dannon yogurt, Craft cheese, Nestle chocolate and many more. McDonalds does provide a very good standard all over the world and it is been choose by the customers as their first priority to eat in a fast food restaurant. As it maintains a good standard all over the world it does enjoy in implementing changes very effectively. McDonalds has been ranked number one by Fortune magazine in years like 2005, 2008 and many more. Packards children hospital centre has mentioned that Children aged between 3 and 5 years choose to have food at McDonalds. They are also successful in adapting local cultures in different countries they have their restaurants. Their business operates around 87% of franchises and they are the number franchised company. Weakness of McDonalds: Although being the most well known an trusted fast food industry their experiment of starting pizza failed and they were not able to compete with other fast food pizza operating chains. Since then they have never tried to compete for pizzas. Every year there is a high employee turnover because of training given to their employees. Also they have made no entries into organic food categories. There core products are out of line and do not match the healthier lifestyles for adults and teenagers because it focuses mainly on burgers and fast food items. As McDonalds is 87% been managed by their Franchises and hence there is always a problem of quality control. As all franchise do not keep the quality maintained by the McDonalds. Also their relations with their investors are not been very good this is because of fluctuating operating and net profits over time. Every year there is a vast change in their income and thus its relations with its investors is not that good. As most of its restaurants are owned and managed by other man and woman there is big difference in standardization of products and price at which products are been served. Task 1 c) Theoretically compare alternative forms of organizational development. There are many more companies that are doing very good business in fast food industry. They are as follows KFC, Pizza Hut, Burger King etc. from all these companies McDonald faces toughest competition from KFC as their main focus is on fried Chicken items itself. KFC is worlds most popular chicken restaurant in the world. It has specialized extra crispy, grilled chicken, spicy wings, recipe strips and home- made chicken sandwiches. KFC owner Colonel started a concept of finger liking goods with 11 herbs and spices to start Kentucky Fried Chicken. KFC was introduced in UK in the year 1965 first US quick chain restaurant to be get started in UK. It operates around more than 700 KFC restaurants around UK and Ireland. KFC spends around 202 million pounds for its famous coating. Every day around 12 million customer around 109 countries of the globe are been served by KFC. It has around 5200 restaurants in US alone and operates more than 16,200 restaurants around the world. Recently it has reached a mark off 2.4 billion sales per year and has made increased profits around 25% in recent years. McDonalds other competitor in fast food industry is Pizza Hut which was started by Frank and Dan Carney in 1950s. As the name suggest Pizza hut specializes in making pizzas all over the world currently operating around 10,000 and more restaurants in about more than 90 countries. It has around 6500 online ordering locations from which customers can get their pizza. Their pan pizza is been loved by all pizza eaters all over the world. And they offer yummy pizza with cheese which is been loved by all. Although McDonalds had tries to enter its shoes when they had started a similar concept to start giving Pizzas in their own restaurants but they failed as they were not able to maintain it the way Pizza hut does. Task 2(a) Identify the key Stakeholders in your organisation and Develop systems to involve those stakeholders in the introduction of change. In McDonalds business the key stakeholders are customers, business partners, employees and opinion leaders. Customers are the persons who buy McDonalds food items they range from very young to extremely old individuals. Business partners include both suppliers and other franchises. Employees are the persons working in KFC and are a key part of the business as all duties of execution are in their hand. Opinion leaders are those groups of people that generate ideas for the business. They are media person, health professionals, environmental groups and other government. In India more than 50,000 Crore of food is been wasted every year because of lack of storage facilities and also because of transportation. With McDonalds aim to provide quality products to Indian people served at McDonalds they introduced the concept of Cold Chain which was been revised from supply chain management which was decision of stakeholders of McDonalds operating its restaurants in India. SCM is flow of materials from suppliers and all their upstream suppliers at all level, transformation of products into semi-finished goods and distribution of these goods to customers and their downstream at all levels. It operates around 20 quality checks in order to provide good quality of products to its customers in Cold Chain process of Supply chain management. In India all these stakeholders played an important role in managing supply chain management. McDonalds was always been looking to sourcing its major business requirements from suppliers and farmers. They always looked forward to maintain a good relationship with the local businesses which resulted and ensured its success is mirrored by its suppliers in India. They looked to those important stakeholders like suppliers who were keen in providing customers with high quality products to customers. With McDonalds looking for local business partners for its business in order to provide food is a very good opportunity for these local businesses to increase its businesses. Task 2(b) Analyse and evaluate these systems which you had used to involve the key stakeholder in change process. In our system of SCM at McDonalds in Indian market the involvement of key Stakeholders like suppliers and customers is very important from making decision how to manage the inventory and how do the supplies for products need to be arranged and what kind of menu should be placed according to the taste of the Indian public. In order to implement the change in the SCM process McDonalds selected the Cold Chain process for Indian Market and there was a keen part played by all the stakeholders on each and every process. Main steps that are been involved in Cold Chain are procurement, warehousing, transportation and retailing. The process of cold chain was very effective and essential for specially a market like India because it integrates food products from its suppliers and are been stored and transported in a standard manner in order to maintain products freshness and keep up the nutrition value of it. In Cold chain suppliers play an important role with the help of advanced technology in order to maintain good state of food. The supply chain management from its suppliers to warehouse and finally from the distribution channel to its stores was been maintained in by the concept of Cold Chain. It considers all steps of SCM and keeps the food items at a controlled temperature. The food items that are been served at restaurants in Indian McDonalds on daily basis were to be kept under the temperature between -18Â °Censisu to 4Â °Censius. Almost every product in the warehouse and during transportation should be kept under these temperatures for quality issues. If the quality of these food products is not been maintained them it would damage the reputation of the company. And hence strict rules and very skilled people are been employed in order to carry all these tasks. Hence McDonalds stakeholders from supplier, distributors, employees and franchises made a good decision in order for the goods to be stored and transported properly and with a good standard. Also the necessary temperatures were maintained to provide the customers with a good food. Technology helped the business in order to maintain proper functioning of all stages of qualitative SCM. Thus, Cold Chain function of SCM (supply change management) helped the Stakeholders at McDonalds India to provide a system that would help them to generate profits by maintaining a good quality of products been served at their restaurants. Task 3(a) Identify number of appropriate models for change that suites your organisation. FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (DRIVING FORCES/ RESTIRTCING FORCES) on McDonalds: McDonalds supply chain process of Cold Chain was been followed in order to maintain change which would help them to be successful in Indian Continent. But in order to achieve it there are a number of driving forces that conflicting with restraining forces that go against it. For McDonalds to achieve success the driving force was adopting Cold Chain process of SCM that would help them gain success and conflicting with them was to maintain good quality that was tough to achieve in India. But to change the way in which they operate their business they had to maintain quality with supply chain management. This was been achieved by following these key steps: Investigate the balance of power involved in an issue: The change process was to outsource its suppliers in India and also to maintain good food quality for its restaurants. This was been achieved by the process of Cold Chain in which standard temperatures were been maintained in order to achieve quality food products by the use of effective technology. Identify the key stakeholders on the issue: The key stakeholders in our business are the customers, business partners, employees and opinion leaders. Customers are the people who are going to consume our products they range from young individuals to old age group. Business partners are the business partners and Franchises. Employees are those people that are going to work in our esteemed organization to maintain all its standards. And opinion leaders are government, media etc. Identify opponents and allies: The major opponents of McDonalds are US fast food industry such as KFC, Pizza Hut, and Burger King. Amongst all these they face toughest competition from KFC as their main target is providing customers with Fried Crispy Chicken. And pizza hut specializing in providing Crispy pizzas. Both KFC and Pizza Hut have more than 10,000 restaurants around more than 90 countries in the world. As per the allies of McDonalds they have many Franchises in counties they operate their business. Identify how to influence the target groups: According to McDonalds approach they approach to local suppliers in each country they operate their business and maintain a good relationship with them. Their main focus is to outsource all parts of their products in the countries they operate. While outsourcing all its products and maintain good relationship with them suppliers they can easily enter the market with changing their Menu according to the taste of the local people and thus enjoying profits. THE 3 STEP MODEL on McDonalds: By the use of Lewins 3 Step Model we are going to see the change process that McDonalds followed in order to enter the Indian Market successfully. McDonalds approach to achieve quality management in India through supply chain management process function of Cold Chain. By successful implementation of Cold Chain and key decisions made by stakeholders in outsourcing supplies were some key decisions that helped them achieve success in Indian market. Stage 1: Unfreeze The first step to achieve change in Indian market was to study the Indian market and the lifestyle that was been followed by the people living in there. The first key step by McDonalds to start its business in India with change in way they operate was to outsource their supplies to local suppliers. They did so because local Indians knew the taste and choice of people which helped the McDonalds to prepare menu accordingly. The supply change was a key factor in Indian market because every year around 50,000 Crore worth of food was been wasted. To change this factor effectively it was very important in the way that McDonalds would set its Supply chain management. As they had a world -wide tag of being quality providing fast food company. And if this was not been handheld properly it would affect them diversely. In order to come out of this they followed a simple function of supply chain management called as Cold Chain which helped them to maintain procurement, warehousing, transportation and retailing of their food products effectively. The change had to be supported by the technology in order to maintain products under normal temperature. In India to maintain such a level of quality was very difficult but McDonalds was successful for finding such suppliers who would provide their customers with the best product with best quality. Stage 2: Transition Once the supply chain managements function Cold Chain was been adopted it was very necessary for McDonalds to approach the right suppliers that would provide them with good quality products and also maintain a very strong relationship with them in the upcoming future. Also they needed to check that the state of their warehouse was in a perfect condition in order for them to store their food products. Drip and sprinkler irrigation in raised farm beds with fertilizer mixing plant. It was not only the condition of warehouse in which the products were kept but it was to maintain those food products at the right temperature so that they are not been destroyed or been damaged. Pre-cooling room and a large cold room for post harvest handling. If so happened then it would cost them great losses. After the food products were been properly stored at the warehouse the next stage was to safely take them back to stores when they were required. Once they were been off from warehouse and been getting transported in refrigerated trucks would help them to keep the right temperature. It was to be maintained properly so that they were not been spoiled during transportation. And also they had to make sure that they were been stocked properly in the stores at right temperature so that they could be of good quality. With good use of technology all these was been achieved by the McDonalds when they started their business in Indian Market. Although the change in supply chain management was totally different of the way in which McDonalds would do their business in other parts of the world. To get everything right at the first did took them time but they were successful in maintaining it. The most important factor for McDonalds was to get right people to be employed in their stores that could handle all type of customers and that would be able to solve and reply to customers efficiently. But at the end it was McDonalds that was able to achieve all that it wanted by taking SCMs Cold Chain concept for its business organizations. Stage 3: Refreeze With McDonalds able to achieve success with its Cold Chain management process was done step by step. In beginning they were did well but as time went on they were able to better all their departments of supply chain management. They then were able to get good deals with suppliers and were able to force them to get food products as they were so big that suppliers could not effort to lose them. As McDonalds went buzzing with its Indian Menu that was made according to Indian people taste. They were able to get better people wanting to work with them and seek a better future with them. Thus it was able to achieve considerable increase after their initial success helped them to control quality and all hygiene factors that were important to their image which was been placed in minds of every individual all over the world. Technology to maintain and keep up all aspects of their business was also a critical success factor. Task 3(b) How would you go ahead in implementing one or more model(s) in your chosen organisation and what improvements do you expect to achieve by implementing your chosen model(s). For our organization I would prefer 8 Step change Model for the following reasons: Step One: Create Urgency The McDonalds wanted to change the way they operated their supply chain management in India because they saw India as a good market for their fast food industry and with a good supply change management they could earn massive profits with local taste. Indian market was been seen as a mass market an in order to achieve success in India they needed to pull out a good combination of market mix and supply chain to succeed. Step Two: Form a Powerful Coalition Before making the inroads into Indian market there was a good research made about the Indian market and likes of the people. McDonalds wanted to grow its reach all over the world and in order to succeed in India they did require a good relationship with local suppliers from the beginning to launch fast food restaurants in India. Although this was not easy and they had to spent a lot of money and resources to understand the taste of Indian people and their lifestyle. But with a contract with suppliers to help them from beginning and outsource all products helped them make good inroads. Step Three: Create a Vision for Change With the Vision to outsource all its products in India and to have good channel with agricultural farmers was a key step bringing a change to their business in Indian market. This vision to change their supply chain management through a process of Cold Chain in which all food products should be kept under -18 degree census to 4 degree census was their main Vision operating change to their business. Step Four: Communicate the Vision With the vision of having a good relationship with suppliers who are looking forward to provide good food products to its customers and maintaining standard temperatures for their food products on daily basis was their day to day strategy. With providing good supply chain meant there would be no waste of food products and close relationship with suppliers would help them to understand local tastes so that they could make Menus as per the taste of local crowds. Especially in Indian market where every year around 50,000 Crore of food is been wasted this was a good plan to start communicating with. Step Five: Remove Obstacles After the successful implementation of its processed function of Cold Chain McDonalds was able to maintain food products at a standard temperature at which they would not be spoiled and good relationship with suppliers would maintain good day to day operation of their business. Although maintaining those suppliers for longer period and also maintaining a good skilled employed that would understand at what temperatures the food products should be preserved was very important. But they were successful in executing both functions properly by maintaining good relations with suppliers and recruiting and providing training to employees that could carry day to day operations of business properly and moving with great guns. Step Six: Create Short-term Wins Although the way that McDonalds had targeted Indian market for its fast food chain was long term but its short term goals like selecting right suppliers and employing and training skilled people for its day to day operations when they would began their fast food restaurants was very important. With its short term plan to cut out on food waste while transporting and employing right people with good skills gave the company great boosting success with its intro in Indian market. The help they got from suppliers to understand taste of local people in introducing Menus according to local tastes was important. And a long term goal to succeed in all departments. Step Seven: Build on the Change The McDonalds should keep on developing their business by introducing more restaurants and developing relations with more suppliers in order to be the fast food giant in Indian Market and put KFC, Pizza Hut and some local fast food chains like Dominos pizza and many more. E advanced technologies should be placed at workforce to provide its employees with latest machines to serve the customers on the till. They should keep in touch of the taste of the local people as the environment changes with the changing taste of people and their lifestyle. And should always try to provide customers with good deals that they would be satisfied and maintain their loyalty towards the McDonalds in India. Step Eight: Anchor the Changes in Corporate Culture Although McDonalds has expanded its business in more than 109 countries but it still follows its basic burgers and French fries to its customers all over the world. They might have different Menus in different countries to support the taste of the people but they have always kept their basic food items and also culture all over the globe to be the number fast food company.

Concepts Of Organizational Behaviour

Concepts Of Organizational Behaviour This report is all about organization behavior and management, what kind of problems are face by organization due to the behavior of all stake holders of any organization? And what steps and decision of management are help to overcome all the problems and what is the current scenario of OB and why it is necessary to study of OB? INTRODUCTION Concepts of OB Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structures have on behavior within the organization. This impact works towards improving the organizations effectiveness. Of all the resources, human resources are precious and the behaviour of human being is unpredictable, thus unique in nature. As such an understanding of their interaction in Organisations is necessary, for the purpose of integrating human effort towards realisation of goals. In order to understand human behaviour, a specified field of faculty of knowledge is being developed. It is called organizational Behaviour (OB). Focuses on three levels of analysis Individuals, Groups, and Organisations It normative and value centred science The study of people at work It is concerned with the understanding, prediction and control of human behaviour Study of how people act in organisation Help suggest ways of improving organisational problems in general Related to work related behaviour and job satisfaction. Primarily related to people. OB include the core topics of motivationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦leaderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦behaviourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ power .interpersonal communicationgroup structure processLearning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.attitude perceptionWork designà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦work stressà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Organization When two or more people get together and agree to coordinate their activities in order to achieve their common goals, an organization has been born. The responsibilities by means of which the activities of the enterprise are dispersed among the (managerial, supervisory, and specialist) personnel employed in its service; and b. the formal interrelations established among the personnel by virtue of such responsibilities. A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. -Stephen p. Robbins A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common or set of goals. Organisation is the place where managers practise the art of management It formal in structure, clear roles and responsibility, hierarchy, authority etc Complementary relationship among member of organisation Not open for everybody Organization is a formal group of people with one or more shared goals Behavior The action that communicates and exhibits the character of individual is behaviour. The reaction of something under specified circumstances can be defined as behaviour. Definition of OB Organizational behaviour can classified as an Action attitudes of individuals groups toward one another and towards organizations as a whole its effect on organizations functioning performance. The study and application of knowledge about how people as individuals and groups act within Organisations, it strives to identify ways in which people can act more effectively. -John nestrom Keith Davis The understanding, prediction and management of human behaviour in organization. -Fred Luthans Robbins organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within Organisations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving organizations effectiveness. Robbins OB is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organization. OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how their behaviour affect the organizations performance Evolution of Organizational Behaviour Concepts of OB in Vedas Four Varna (Allocation of work), Four Purusarth (allocation of activities), Home and work distance (Township) Kautilayas Arthsastra Relationship with friend, superior, subordinate, ministers, servant etc. Wage rate and differences Values in organizations 1800 BC Babylonian Code Minimum Wage Rate Incentive Wage Rate 1800 Robert Owen Father or Personnel Management Emphasize the human factor in organization Refused to give employment to children Teach workers the importance of working conditions and cleanliness 1835 Andrew Ure The philosophy of Manufacturers Provide snacks, medical treatment and sickness benefits 1840 J N Tata Emphasize the dignity of labor at organization Improve the working conditions 1886 introduce pensions plans 1895 accident compensations schemes 1880 Scientific Management Frederiek Taylor decides to time each and every worker at the Midvale Steel Company. His view of the future becomes highly accurate: In the past man was first. In the future the system will be first. In scientific management the managers were elevated while the workers roles were negated. Science, not rule of thumb, said Taylor. The decisions of supervisors, based upon experience and intuition, were no longer important. Employees were not allowed to have ideas of responsibility. Yet the question remains is this promotion of managers to centre-stage justified? Scientific selection of workers and cooperation of labors and management A clear division of tasks and responsibilities between management and workers. Use of scientific methods to determine the best way of doing a job. Productivity was concerned More work in less time 1922: Max Weber gives the concept of Bureaucracy 1930-1950 Human Relation Management Elton Mayo Non economic and Social factors were considered Employee cooperation and morale program The social process of group behavior can be understood in terms of clinical method 1932 The Hawthorne Studies Elton Mayo becomes the first to question the behavioural assumptions of scientific management. The studies concluded that human factors were often more important than physical conditions in motivating employees to greater productivity. Illumination Experiment Really assembly test room experiments Incentives, rest period, changing working hours Mass interviewing Programme Do you like your supervisor Bank wiring Observation Room Experiments Fear of unemployment Fear of raising the standards Protection of slower workers Satisfaction on the part of management Classical Organizational Theory Henry Fayol a French industrialist Interrelations between people and their jobs Division of labor Managers authority over subordinate Well defined command Hierarch f authority OB in Modern Era 1954 Hierarchy of Needs Malows theory of hierarchy need is published in his book Motivation and Personality. This provides a framework for gaining employees commitment. 1954 Leadership/Management Drucker writes The Practice of Management and introduces the 5 basic roles of managers. He writes, The first question in discussing organization structure must be: What is our business and what should it be? Organization structure must be designed so as to make possible the attainment of objectives of the business for five, ten, fifteen years hence. 1959 Hygiene and Motivational Factors Frederick Herzberg developed a list of factors which are closely based on Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, except it more closely related to work. Hygiene factors must be present in the job before motivators can be used to stimulate the workers. 1960s Organization Development In the 1950s and 1960s a new, integrated approach originated known as Organization Development (OD): the systematic application of behavioral science knowledge at various levels (group, intergroup, and total organization) to bring about planned change 1960 Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregors Theory X and Theory Y principles influence the design and implementation of personnel policies and practices. Late 1960s Action Learning An Unheralded British academic was invited to try out his theories in Belgium it led to an upturn in the Belgian economy. Unless your ideas are ridiculed by experts they are worth nothing, says the British academic Reg Revens, creator of action learning: L = P + Q ([L] Learning occurs through a combination of programmed knowledge [P] and the ability to ask insightful questions [Q]) Note that his work has had little impact on this side of the ocean, although it remains one of the best ways to learn and to improve an organization. 1964 Management Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton develop a management model that conceptualizes management styles and relations. Their Grid uses two axes. Concern for people is plotted using the vertical axis and Concern for task is along the horizontal axis. The notion that just two dimensions can describe a managerial behavior has the attraction of simplicity. 1990 Learning Organization Peter Senge popularized the Learning Organization in The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. He describes the organization as an organism with the capacity to enhance its capabilities and shape its own future. A learning organization is any organization (e.g. school, business, government agency) that understands itself as a complex, organic system that has a vision and purpose. It uses feedback systems and alignment mechanisms to achieve its goals. 1995 Ethics On December 11, 1995 a fire burned most of Malden Mills to the ground and put 3,000 people out of work. Most of the 3,000 thought they were out of work permanently. CEO Aaron Feuerstein says, This is not the end he spent millions keeping all 3,000 employees on the payroll with full benefits for 3 months until he could get another factory up and running. Why? He answers, The fundamental difference is that I consider our workers an asset, not an expense. Q-1. Critically discuss what you believe are the most important factors that are likely to determine the successful performance of work organizations. What do you see as the main obstacles to effective organizational performance and how would you attempt to overcome them? Factors of successful performance of work organization Motivation in the Workplace:- The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. But thats easier said than done! Motivation practice and theory are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines. Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and appreciation of this is a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership. Quite apart from the benefit and moral value of an altruistic approach to treating colleagues as human beings and respecting human dignity in all its forms, research and observations show that well motivated employees are more productive and creative. The inverse also holds true. The schematic below indicates the potential contribution the practical application of the principles this paper has on reducing work content in the organization. Environmental Scanning:- Environmental scanning is the acquisition and use of information about events, trends, and relationships in an organizations external environment, the knowledge of which would assist management in planning the organizations future course of action. Depending on the organizations beliefs about environmental analyzability and the extent that it intrudes into the environment to understand it, four modes of scanning may be differentiated: undirected viewing, conditioned viewing, enacting, and searching. We analyze each mode of scanning by examining its characteristic information needs, information seeking, and information use behaviors. In addition, we analyze organizational learning processes by considering the sense making, knowledge creating and decision making processes at work in each mode. 3. Job Satisfaction:- Initial research indicated that neuroticism is negatively correlated with job satisfaction, whereas conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness are positively correlated with job satisfaction. Openness to experience has a negligible impact on job satisfaction. Additional research, however, has only been able to replicate correlations among the factors of neuroticism and extraversion, with extraversion being positively correlated with job satisfaction and neuroticism being negatively correlated. This could be due to the social nature of the workplace (Judge, Heller, Mount, 2002). This finding may be due to the low level of arousability for extraverted individuals (Hebbs theory). If the workplace is a social environment, then extraverted employees are more likely to be at a low level of arousal while at work, whereas at their home there is less stimulation. Introverts, on the other hand, are more likely at their optimal level of arousal outside of the workplace, where there is less stimulation, and therefore are more likely dissatisfied with the level of stimulation that they experience while at work. Deviation in the Workplace:- Workplace deviance occurs when an employee voluntarily pursues a course of action that threatens the well-being of the individual or the organization. Examples include stealing, hostile behavior towards coworkers, and withholding effort. Stealing and withholding effort are categorized as organizational deviance, whereas hostile and rude behavior toward coworkers is categorized as interpersonal deviance. Workplace deviance is related to the five-factor model of personality. Interpersonal deviance is negatively correlated with high levels of agreeableness. Organizational deviance is negatively correlated with high levels of conscientiousness and positively correlated with high levels of neuroticism. This implies that individuals who are emotionally stable and conscientious are less likely to withhold effort or steal, whereas those who are agreeable are less likely to be hostile to their coworkers. Another entirely different factor to consider is perception of the workplace. Employees who had a positive perception of their workplace were less likely to pursue deviant behavior. Research indicates that personality acts as a moderating factor: workplace deviance was more likely to be endorsed with respect to an individual when both the perception of the workplace was negative and emotional stability, conscientiousness, and agreeableness was low (Colbert, Mount, Harter, Witt, Barrick, 2004). 5. Teamwork:- Oftentimes in the workplace the ability to be a team player is valued and is critical to job performance. Recent research has suggested that conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness are all related to cooperative behavior but that they are not related to task performance. Although this fortifies the case that job performance is related to the five-factor model via increased cooperativeness among coworkers, it lays siege to the role of personality by implying that actual job performance (task performance) is related to cognitive ability and not to personality (LePine Dyne, 2001). Leadership abilities are often essential in the workplace, especially for individuals who aspire to move up into the ranks of management. Studies of Asian military units have found that neuroticism is negatively correlated with leadership abilities. Contrary to what the researchers hypothesized, agreeableness is negatively correlated with leadership abilities as well. Openness to experience is unrelated to leadership abilities, but extraversion is positively correlated with leadership abilities (Lim Ployhart, 2004). This evidence is consistent with the long-standing idea that in teams there are leaders and there are followers; the leaders make decisions and the followers abide by them. Although agreeableness is positively correlated with working with a team, it is negatively correlated with being a leader. Those followers who do not always agree and are willing to voice their own opinions end up moving up the ranks, whereas those who blindly agree are left as followers. 6. Personnel Selection Research into the relation between the five-factor model and personnel hiring provides additional evidence that conscientiousness is the most valid predictor of job performance (Schmidt Ryan, 1993). Given that conscientious individuals have a tendency to perform better as employees; it is easy to believe that employers will seek out that factor or the traits that coincide with it. 7. Personality:- A persons personality may not necessarily have a very high impact on a persons job or productivity per se, depending on the type of work being done. As discussed by Sean P. Neubert, the notion that salespeople who exhibit high levels of extraversion will have better overall job performance is pretty evident, for being a salesperson requires a lot of social interaction, and an introverted salesperson would obviously be less effective than an extravert. Given that point, another point brought up is about conscientiousness in addition to extraversion and its positive correlation with job performance in terms of the social atmosphere present in most workplaces: a conscientious person is obviously more likely to be a more productive worker and an extraverted person will experience an optimal level of arousal in a social workplace. Personality influence would perhaps become less palpable if an individuals place of work is not a highly social arena or the job is non-traditional. Main obstacles to effective organizational performance and how would you attempt to overcome? PRODUCTIVITY An organisation is productive if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs to outputs at the lowest cost as such productivity implies a concern for both effectiveness and efficiency. A hospital, for e.g. is effective when it successfully meets the needs of its clientele. It is efficient when it can do so at a low cost. If a hospital manages to achieve higher output from its present staff by reducing the average number of days a patient is confined to a bed or by increasing the number of staff patient contacts per day. We say that the hospital has gain productive efficiency. A business firm is effective when it attains its sales or market share goals but its productivity also depends on achieving those goals efficiently. ABSENTEEISM Absenteeism is defined as the failure to report to work. Absenteeism is huge cost and disruption to employers. Its difficult for an organization to operate smoothly and to attain its objectives if employees fail to report to their jobs. The work flow is disrupted, and often important decisions must be delayed. In organization that rely heavily on assembly-line production, absenteeism can be considerably more than a disruption; it can result in a drastic reduction in the quality of output, and in some cases, it can bring about a complete shutdown of the production facility. Level of absenteeism beyond the normal range in any organization has a direct impact on that organizations effectiveness and efficiency. TURNOVER Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. A high turnover rate results in increased recruiting, selection, and training coursing addition, a high rate of turnover can disrupt the efficient running of an organization when knowledgeable and experienced personal level and replacements must be found and prepared to assume positions of responsibility. In todays changing world of work, reasonable level of employee-initiated turnover facilitated organizational flexibility and employee independence and they can listen the need of management-initiated layoffs. OCB Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employees formal job requirements but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning for the organization. Successful Organisations need employees who will do more than their usual job duties who will provide performance that is beyond expectations. Organisations want and need employees who will do those things that arent in any job description. And the evidence indicates that Organisations that have such employees out perform those that didnt. As a result, OB is concerned with OCB as a dependent variable. JOB SATISFACTION The final dependent variable we all look at is job satisfaction, which we define as a private feeling about ones job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. Unlike the previous variable, job satisfaction to represents an attitude rather than behaviour. Why, then, has it become a primary dependent variable? For to reasons its demonstrated relationship to performance factors and the value preferences help by many OB researches. The belief that satisfied employees are more productive than dissatisfied employees. Has been a basic tenet among managers for years, though only now has research begun to support his theory after decades of questions about the satisfaction-performance relationship. POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR: By integrating positive psychology to organizational setting, Fred Luthans has pioneered the positive organizational behaviour research in 1999. Positive organizational behaviour is the application of positive psychology to the workplace. Its focus is on strengths and on building the best in the workplace under the basic assumption that goodness and excellence can be analyzed and achieved. The study and application of positive oriented human resource strength and psychological capacitates that can be measured, develop and effectively managed for performance improvement in todays workplace. -Luthan Despite initial studies and conceptualizations, the field of POB is still in its infancy. Therefore the challenge currently a waiting with POB is to bring about a more profound understanding of the real impact of positive states for organizational functioning and how these states can be enhanced with the workplace. Positive psychology shift the emphasize away from What is Wrong and what is Right. Five elements of positive approach in OB Luthan has enumerated the five elements of positive approach in OB. Confidence In confidence, he includes self efficacy. Self efficacy refers to how well one can execute courses of action required dealing with prospective situation. Hope Optimism Subjective Wellbeing High correlation with job satisfaction. Emotional intelligence It includes personality and leadership. 5 categories of the positive approach (ISOTC) In order to retain a sharp focus, five categories of positive approach are given. Internality Personality Self management Optimism Humanistic Tradition Trust Positive Expectancy Collaboration Internality Personality Internality, or internal locus of control, is the general orientation of an individual that results in a belief that he can shape his destiny. It refers to an individuals confidence in his ability to mobilize motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action to execute a task. Self management Self management is a part of emotional intelligence. There are two main elements of self management: self regulation or self restraint and perseverance. Those who resist temptation about getting something immediately or without any efforts are more competent, effective, self assertive and better able to cope with. This characteristic of gratification of a long term goal is a part of self management. Optimism: Instead of indulging in the recollection of misfortunes and bad experiences, individuals should get deeply involved in the activities they do. Such joy of work contributes not only to involvement but also to effectiveness. Trust: Trust as an orientation is reflected in a. Positive image of others resulting in dialogue and delegation. b. Positive reinforcement resulting in appreciation, recognition, reward, respect, sense of assurance, acceptance, etc. Collaboration: Collaboration includes group behavior. It is defined in terms of a person working with another person for the attainment of goal. 2. Consider the changing nature of modern work organization and attempt to challenge and criticize the validity of this statement In todays world, the structure, content, and process of work have changed. Work is now: more cognitively complex more team-based and collaborative more dependent on social skills more dependent on technological competence more time pressured More mobile and less dependent on geography. In todays world, you will also be working for an organization that is likely to be very different due to competitive pressures and technological breakthroughs. Organizations today are: leaner and more agile more focused on identifying value from the customer perspective more tuned to dynamic competitive requirements and strategy less hierarchical in structure and decision authority less likely to provide lifelong careers and job security Continually reorganizing to maintain or gain competitive advantage. A. The Key Drivers for Changing Nature of Work Although many factors ultimately contribute to the changing patterns of work, organizational theorists point to two key drivers: Increasing pressures on organizations to be more competitive, agile, and customer focused-to be a lean enterprise. Communication and information technology breakthroughs, especially mobile technologies and the Internet that enable work to be separated from time and space. Changes in Organizational Focus: What does it mean to be Lean? The Lean Enterprise model was introduced to the world by Toyota in the 1970s. Since then, it has fueled changes in organizations across the globe, particularly-but not exclusively-in manufacturing and product development. The key principles of Lean Enterprise (or lean thinking, as it is sometimes called) are: Define value from the customers perspective. Identify internal activities and processes that add value for the customer and identify linkages between them (the value chain). Eliminate non-value added activities (or waste) across the organization. Reduce waste and inefficiencies in support (e.g., overhead) functions. The lean enterprise principles enabled many organizations to respond more rapidly to the marketplace by reducing cycle time, developing mass customization processes, and supporting continual change and innovation. Key organizational changes include: Reduced hierarchical structure-Hierarchies are cumbersome and cannot respond quickly to changing market demands, such as pressures for reduced cycle time and continuous innovation. Hierarchies are being replaced by cross unit organizational groupings with fewer layers and more decentralized decision making. Blurred boundaries-As organizations become more laterally structured, boundaries begin to breakdown as different parts of the organization need to work more effectively together. Boundaries between departments as well as between job categories (manager, professional, technical) become looser and there is a greater need for task and knowledge sharing. Teams as basic building blocks-the move toward a team-based organizational structure results from pressures to make rapid decisions, to reduce inefficiencies, and to continually improve work processes. New management perspective-Workers are no longer managed to comply with rules and orders, but rather to be committed to organizational goals and mission. The blurring of boundaries also affects organizational roles. As employees gain more decision authority and latitude, managers become more social supporters and coaches rather than commanders. Continuous change-Organizations are expected to continue the cycles of reflection and reorganization. However, changes may be both large and small and are likely to be interspersed with periods of stability. Kling and Zmuidzinas identify three types of change-metamorphosis (far reaching, fundamental change), migration (shifts toward a new form), and elaboration (changes that enhance some aspect of work). B. How Work is Changing for Individuals and Groups Over the past two decades, a new pattern of work is emerging as the knowledge economy realizes the full potential of both new technologies and new organizational models. The changes fall into the following domains: Cognitive competence Social and interactive competence The new psychological contract between employees and employers Changes in process and place Increased complexity of work-Workers need to know more, not only to do their jobs and tasks, but also to work effectively with others on teams. Many knowledge-based tasks require sound analytical and judgment skills to carry out work that is more novel, extemporaneous, and context based, with few rules and structured ways of working. Although demand for high cognitive skills are especially prominent in professional, technical, and managerial jobs, even administrative tasks require more independent decision making and operational decision making. Continuous competency development-Not only do workers need to keep their technology skills up to date, they need to be continuous learners in their knowledge fields and to also be more conversant with business strategy. Time to read and attend training classes is no longer a perquisite of only a few, it is essential for all workers. Different ways of thinking-Rosabeth Kantor argues that cross-functional and cross boundary teams require kaleidoscope thinking, the ability to see alternative angles and perspectives and to create new patterns of thinking that propel innovation. Workers also need to be able to synthesize disparate ideas in order to make the cognitive leaps that unde

The Black Cat Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"The Black Cat,† by Edgar Allan Poe   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Black Cat,† a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, is about a man who is in jail confessing to murdering his wife. He starts of by stating that he was happily married to a nice beautiful woman, and the couple had many animals. Among those animals was a black cat named Pluto and this cat is the narrator’s favorite animal. The cat and the narrator established a great relationship and are almost inseparable. The narrator soon becomes an alcoholic and one day he returns from a town bar well intoxicated and tries to pet the cat. The cat tries to avoid him in fear of violence and when the man grabs the cat, it bites him in the hand. Out of fury, the narrator cuts out one of his eyes. The next day the man realizes what he did and ...

Writing of James Baldwin Essay -- Notes of a Native Son

The Writing Wisdom of James Baldwin James Baldwin is not known by much of America’s youth today, and his writings are not taught in many schools. His style of writing, however, is ultimately unique. Baldwin’s African-American viewpoint is very rare, creating a fresh way to look upon American culture and ethnicity. There also may be no other author like Baldwin that blends narrative and analysis seamlessly, while still keeping the reader interested in the story at hand. In â€Å"Notes of a Native Son,† Baldwin uses this weaving of narration and analysis to show his inability to see how his father’s personality had impacted and molded his own personality. In â€Å"Notes of a Native Son,† Baldwin’s mastery of weaving narrative and analysis is blatantly obvious. The premise behind the essay is the relationship between Baldwin and his father. The essay takes the reader through trials and tribulations in Baldwin’s life, including the spats between him and his father. Their relationship was, safe to say, slightly aloof. Baldwin describes throughout the essay the fact that he and his father would rarely speak, and that when they did, it usually ended in an argument. The essay also paints a picture of Harlem in the 1940’s, specifically during the massive riots of 1943. Baldwin describes other riots and social situations that were occurring around the rest of the country at the same time as the Harlem riots. The essay also describes the death of Baldwin’s father, and the emotions incurred by James and his family. Baldwin also does some reflection in this essay, describing his feelings towa rds his father and how they have changed over more than a decade since his death. Baldwin often uses his feelings towards ... ... The style at which Baldwin mixes true story with gut-wrenching emotion in â€Å"Notes of a Native Son† is absolutely astounding. He draws the reader into the story, and then lets them in to his heart and soul. His ability to incorporate his feelings with those of the African-American race is what makes this essay unique. He does not simply write the first half of the paper as a narrative, and then spend the final half analyzing himself. He analyzes himself at every opportunity that he sees fit, after every major occurrence in he and his father’s life. Baldwin’s blunt, perhaps even crude analysis of himself, his father, and both the white and black races shows that he is not afraid of what others think. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Notes of a Native Son.† 1955. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 63-84.

Male/Female Contrasts Essay Essay

There are many contrasts to male and female friendships. Both sexes share their feelings, thoughts, or even a casual conversation, differently from each other. Some say it’s because of a man’s ego, or a woman’s intuition that their friendships seem to work. Here are some contrasts of both genders friendships. Woman friendships usually seem to be more conversed, as for men it’s the opposite. Woman can talk about anything they want and share the same feelings or thoughts on the topic, but for men it’s a little less conversational. For men they think it’s feminine to talk about their feelings. Men usually refrain from talking to their friends about relationship problems so they typically talk about work related topics, sports, or anything that has to do with a man’s masculinity to show his friend he is dominate. But if men were to find themselves in a conversation they only talk about the things they have in common, which makes the men bond more and most likely to be better friends. Men don’t criticize each other’s opinion. As for women, if a girl sees her friend crying she is more likely to ask her to talk about why is she crying. Woman share common issues so their more likely to help one another. So you can say women are more sympathetic then men. Woman also criticize each other and because they know more information about each other, their more open to sharing personal information. Unlike woman, men participate in a total different activity when their together as oppose to woman. Men rather do more hands on activities such as painting a house, play sports (whether it be on a game console or in a big field), even going to the gym together, and also help another man with a mechanical problem. Like I stated before men try to avoid doing anything that has to do with emotions. Woman on the other hand does activities that don’t get them tired. Things like shopping, or share secrets; they don’t really do anything else but talk. They rather do things that involve finding things out about another person. Women can go out to a cafà © and sit down for hours talking about books or men. Men go into a cafà © order their stuff to go while talking about the hot girl in their work place. So in conclusion there are many contrasts to male and female friendships. Men and women friendships differ because of the way both sexes share their feelings, thoughts, or a casual conversation. Men rather do things that don’t involve talking about emotion but focus on the masculinity and do productive activities. As for woman there more conversed and sympathetic towards their friends and try not to do anything that would tire them out.

Organization of Study Time

Study and revision skills INFO This section covers the following ideas and material: An introduction to revision methods, including †¢ concept mapping, ? ow charts and mind maps †¢ planned revision timing †¢ practising examination technique. General study methods Organisation of study time The examinations are looming large. Suddenly you realise that you do need your notes and experimental work from the last year or two. Are they in good shape? Well†¦! It is worth remembering that revision is just that. It shouldn’t be the first time that you have tried to get to grips with a subject.Organisation of study habits over a whole course is a vital part of being successful. This certainly means practical things, such as making sure that your notes are intact and readable. But it also includes making sure that you have understood the ideas and connections as you have covered a topic. Nothing can be worse than trying to learn masses of material that you don’ t understand. The best preparation for an examination begins a long time before it! This spreads the load and lessens the tension as the examination approaches. Figure 1 summarises various aspects of preparing for examinations.The coursework ‘arm’ emphasises not only the collection of good notes directly from class, but also the need to look at and use material from outside. Reading reference material and taking useful notes from it is a skill in itself. Table 1 outlines different methods of reading and their purpose. The first three methods are more appropriate to using books for reference. However, there is an increasing number of popular science books and magazines for which the last two methods are appropriate. In addition, there is an increasing amount of reference material now available on CD-ROM and, most significantly, the internet.You should find ways of using this material, as it provides a more interactive presentation of the material. The ability to make not es and topic summaries as you work through a course is important, as they can then be used as a starting point for revision. You should not think of practical work in chemistry as separate from other classwork. The ideas and detailed information from the practicals are important in reinforcing your understanding of a topic. Indeed, a particular experiment may help you to remember and understand a crucial idea – giving you a visual clue on which to ‘hang’ the idea in your memory. Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 1 reading CD-ROM practical work classnotes COURSEWORK review cards summary sheets Information how much? when? spider diagrams Or gan isin topic lists mind maps gn ote s O n rga g isin tim e take breaks REVISION SKILLS use a timetable u St sk ill key words and ideas s dy bi ha stick to timetable or y ts M em suitable place regular reviews use summaries, spider diagrams and mind maps Figure 1 Revision involves organisation and the development of particular skills. alone or with a friend ime of day Type of reading skimming scanning reflective reading detecting bias reading for pleasure Method looking for the main topics looking for specific information reading carefully and thoughtfully, with attention to detail separating fact from opinion reading at own pace Purpose to gain an overall impression to find particular facts or conclusions to obtain a thorough understanding of a topic to form a decided impression of a controversial area to gain a feel for a subject, and for enjoyment Table 1 Different methods of reading and their purpose.This book, and the accompanying materials, are aimed specifically at students taking the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry course. This is a course and qualification with a very high international reputation. 2  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills INFO There is an excellent website for Cambridge IGCSE students, at: www. cambridgestudents. org . uk/subjectpages/chemistry/igcsechemistry Do take a good look at this website. You will ? nd copies of past papers, model answers to past questions, some simulations, and revision checklists based on the syllabus.The tips from examiners are there to help you do well in the exam and are certainly worth taking note of. The website is worth visiting regularly, as new material and up-to-date papers are added to it. Getting started We have said it earlier, and it can be boring to repeat it, but it remains true all the same: to make sure of a high grade in your final examinations you will need to work hard throughout your course. Here are some tips to help you make the best use of the time you put in on your work in chemistry. Make sure you have a copy of the IGCSE Chemistry syllabus.There is one provided on this CD which also gives you guidance as to where in the book the different topics are covered. It is important you know the course you are taking and the way in which you will be as sessed. IGCSE exams aren’t just about learning facts. You need to be able to understand your work and become sufficiently confident in your understanding to answer questions about things you have never met before. You need to be able to transfer your knowledge in a particular area to an example that will be unfamiliar to you.The IGCSE examiners will be setting questions to test three sets of skills (they are known as Assessment Objectives). These are: †¢ Skill A: knowledge with understanding †¢ Skill B: handling information and solving problems †¢ Skill C: experimental skills and investigations. About 50% of all the marks in the exam are for skill A, 30% for skill B and 20% for skill C. Skill A is about learning and understanding all the facts and concepts in the syllabus. These are covered in your textbook, and your teacher will make sure you have met them all in class as your course progresses.There are no crafty shortcuts, it is simply a case of getting your head down and working at these. Skill B is about using these facts and concepts and applying them to an unfamiliar context. It’s important that you become confident in tackling questions that, at first sight, look completely new. The workbook will give you lots of practice at this. Trying past question papers will also help to test this skill, but there will still be unusual material that you will meet for the first time in the exam. The following ‘model exam question’ is similar to the type of question found on an extended paper and will give you some idea of what to expect.Cathodic protection of steel objects is not mentioned in the syllabus whereas sacrificial protection is. Yet here you are asked to compare the two using your knowledge and understanding of electrolysis. Skill C is about practical skills. You should have plenty of opportunity to do experiments in a laboratory throughout your course. The workbook also has exercises that will help you to improv e your skills at handling and interpreting data obtained from experiments, and designing experiments. But make sure you gain the most you can from your practical sessions.Chapter 12 gives you clear guidance about what is involved in the assessment of your practical work.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 3 Model Q Questions For relevant material, see Chapter 9. Titanium is very resistant to corrosion. One of its uses is as an electrode in the cathodic protection of large steel structures from rusting. + power – steel oil rig which is cathode titanium anode seawater contains H+(aq), OH–(aq), Na+(aq), Cl –(aq) a Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer.Oxidation is the loss of electrons Reduction is the gain of electrons HINT: Remember OIL RIG – to help remember ‘oxidation is loss; reduction is gain’ [2] b The steel oil rig is the negative electrode (cathode) in this protective electro lytic arrangement. Name the gas formed at this electrode. Hydrogen HINT: Discharge of H+ ions from the seawater. [1] c Name one of the two possible gases formed at the titanium anode. Oxygen (or chlorine) HINT: Discharge of OH? ions or Cl? from the seawater. [1] d Explain why the oil rig does not rust.T oil rig legs are the cathode in the cell that is set up (see diagram)he and oxidation does not take place at the cathode (electrons are moving towards the cathode, not away from it). HINT: See Chapter 4 – oxidation takes place at the anode in electrolysis; reduction takes place at the cathode. Do not confuse this with sacri? cial protection. [2] e Another way of protecting steel from corrosion that involves using another metal is sacrificial protection. Give two differences between sacrificial protection and cathodic protection.Cathodic protection involves electrolysis and needs electricity; it uses an inert electrode (here made of titanium). Sacrificial protection needs a mor e reactive metal; this metal corrodes instead of the steel. Sacrificial protection does not need electricity. f What is the name of the method of rust protection that uses zinc? Galvanisation [2] [1] 4  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills Keeping up progress During the course you will be given work to do. Try to work steadily through all the necessary material throughout your course. It is really important that you keep up with this.Don’t set out to make life difficult for yourself. Do make sure that you understand each piece of work you do. Research shows that we find it much easier to learn and remember things if we understand them. If there is something you don’t understand, make sure you do everything you can to put this right straight away. Quite often working through a topic with a friend will help. Use your school library or the internet. Be careful of the internet, though, as many chemistry sites are written for other course s in different countries. These can use different approaches and it is difficult to apply the explanations you see.Ask your teacher for a (short) list of reliable sites you can go to regularly. Strategies of study Your study sessions should use a variety of techniques to aid your understanding and learning of the material. Simply reading over your notes is not a particularly productive strategy. Try to summarise topics as you read, then shorten the summary down to a set of key words. Having learnt these, try to reconstruct notes on the topic. Your learning and understanding can also be checked and developed by answering questions from past examination papers. Keep the length of time taken to answer questions in mind when testing yourself.There is no point in preparing over-elaborate answers to short questions. An important aspect of understanding a topic is to ‘see the connections’ between the ideas involved. Establishing these links makes it so much easier to remember the details of a topic. Pictorial methods of linking ideas can be very useful for this. INFO The methods available include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ?ow charts concept maps Venn diagrams mind maps. The importance of all these methods is that they force us to sort out the material into key ideas, and then to establish the links between them.It is useful to draw up the diagrams for yourself. Remember that your ‘maps’ may well differ from other people’s. Comparing notes with others, or even drawing them up together as a group, can also be very useful. Sharing ideas and comparing maps helps you to think things through. As you use these methods, you will develop greater skill in drawing them up. Flow charts are linear in their approach and work down from a major idea by a series of subdivisions. They are useful for emphasising the different types of chemical substance, for example (see examples of charts in Chapters 2 and 3 in the textbook).Concept maps and min d maps are particularly useful for helping you to see the flow of ideas. In a concept map (Figure 2), the interlinking idea is written alongside the connecting arrow.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 5 a combustion neutralisation precipitation synthesis redox are types of a catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction can be written down as a word or symbol equation word n tio equa sym bo equa l tion example: zinc + oxygen > zinc oxide 2Zn + O2 > 2ZnO these are elements this is a compound this means this means 2 atoms of zinc 1 molecule of oxygen is the process that positive ions undergo at the cathode during is the gain of ELECTROLYSIS transferred during ELECTRONS is the loss of is the opposite process to is the process that negative ions undergo at the anode during process used to extract metals in the BLAST FURNACE REDUCTION REDOX OXIDATION is a special form of is the opposite process to is the removal of is the addition of COMBUSTION OXYGEN ele ment removed from metal ores by carbon in Figure 2 a Spider diagrams, and b concept maps involve organising ideas and their connections. reactions in which substances react withVenn diagrams are useful for showing where different categories overlap. For example, the different ways in which we categorise reactions can result in overlaps. Figure 3 shows this. It also shows how the term ‘redox reaction’ covers a wide range of reactions. 6  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills NEUTRALISATION acid + base/alkali > salt + water ONLY PRECIPITATION forming an insoluble solid by a chemical reaction sodium thiosulfate + hydrochloric acid REDOX Synthesis Decomposition to elements Electrolysis Displacement Figure 3 A Venn diagram showing various types of reaction.Can you think of examples to ? ll each space? (One has been done for you. ) Figure 4 shows a mind map covering aspects of the nature of atoms and molecules. This particular map covers a w ide range of ideas – radiating from the central idea that matter is made up of very small particles (atoms or molecules, depending on the substance being talked about). The interconnections of ideas are emphasised. Putting the map on paper helps you to sort out your ideas! There are obviously overlaps between different topics. There are various pieces of mind-mapping software available (one was sed to construct Figure 4) and you can find these on the internet. However, it is important not to get over-involved in the processes of a particular IT package. In many ways the important thing about ‘mind-mapping’ is that it can be practised quite casually, and frequently, simply on a piece of ‘rough’ paper. Sketching different ‘mind maps’ on different topics is a way of looking at the subject from different angles to aid the memory. The main point is the thinking that is done while constructing the ‘map’.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 7 escribes the states of matter and the movement of particles in these states the particles in matter are moving all the time ion init de f different substances contain different types of particles, e. g. atoms, ions or molecules Kinetic theory all matter is made up of very small particles the higher the temperature, the higher the average energy of the particles Diffusion does not take place in solids heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature much slower in liquids than gases often energy given out various types, e. g. synthesis and decomposition usually not easily reversibleATOMS AND MOLECULES new chemical substances formed Chemical reactions e. g. melting or dissolving Physical changes Dalton’s idea easily reversible, e. g. by cooling or evaporating no new chemical substances made Atomic theory atoms of different elements can combine to make the molecules of a compound a pure element co ntains only atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus atoms of an element are each given their own symbol atoms are the smallest particles that take part in a chemical reaction the atoms of the different elements differ in size Figure 4 A mind map on ‘atoms and molecules’.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills (isotopes) (nucleus) (nuclear reactions) (balanced equations) physical properties depend on how the atoms are linked together (atoms can be subdivided) everything is made from about 100 elements, each made up of different atoms everything is made of invisibly small atoms, linked together in different patterns everything can be made from a few substances combined in different ways structures weigh the same as the total mass of their parts the total amount of matter stays the same (by mass) during chemical changes mount of matter stays the same (by atom count) during chemical changes chemical combinations of substances have different properties visible objects may be made of large numbers of very small invisible particles substances have physical properties magnifiers and microscopes often show that objects are made of smaller parts small parts can be put together in different ways to make different things water evaporates into the air all materials come from somewhere and must go somewhere PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES COMMON ELEMENTS ATOMS ARE INVISIBLY SMALL CONSERVATION OF MATTERKEY Scientific ideas More general notions Storylines Figure 5 The different ‘storylines’ behind the maps branch into each other. Figure 5 shows how several ‘storylines’ can be linked together. This type of diagram can help you see the overall pattern of a section of the course you are taking and begin to see the ‘connections’ between ideas. The more connections, or associations, you can make between ideas, the more likely you are to understand and remember them. When a particular part of a course, or a particular topic, is finished it can be useful to produce a diagrammatic summary.This helps reinforce the linked ideas while they are still fresh in your mind. The charts can provide a useful ‘checklist’ when it comes to revision. The next three charts (Figure 6a,b,c) show how parts of a course can be summarised. Figure 6a summarises a great deal of the material covered in Chapters 2 and 3, and Figures 6b and 6c flow into each other and show how much of chemistry develops from a consideration of the Earth’s resources. This ‘map’ of chemistry provides a context for your studies.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 9 a SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASESCHEMISTRY SECTION ONE PARTICLES ATOMS MOLECULES IONS ATOMIC STRUCTURE proton number Z – mass number A PROTONS ELECTRONS ORBITS (2,8,8) PROTONS +NEUTRONS NEUTRONS = A–Z p + 1 n o 1 e – EQUATIONS and CALCULATIONS Balancing Mr from Ar + % Quanti ties from equations Solids and gases Formulae from % Data Book FORMULAE 1 1840 CHEMICAL BONDS FORMING IONS Metals lose electrons Non-metals gain electrons GROUP 1 THE ALKALI METALS Reaction with Water Storage Variation down group Density m. p. IONIC COVALENT SHARING ELECTRONS GROUP 7 THE HALOGENS Reaction with iron Displacement Colour Variation down group m. . TRANSITION METALS Coloured compounds Catalysts High m. p. s NOBLE GASES No reactions Coloured lights METALS NON-METALS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Malleable Conductors Strong High m. p. Shiny Alloys BURNING IN AIR and OXYGEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Brittle Poor conductors Low m. p. Dull REACTIVITY OF METALS BASIC OXIDES ACIDIC OXIDES Figure 6 a, b, c Flow charts can show very clearly the links between different areas of chemistry and help provide an overall pattern to a course. 10  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills b CHEMISTRY SECTION TWOALKALIS Basic Oxides + Water CHEMICAL REACTIONS ACIDS Acidic Ox ides + Water REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS AIR NEUTRALISATION H + +OH – H2O BONDS BREAK and FORM WATER ACID POTASSIUM SODIUM 14 pH WEAK WEAK STRONG pH STRONG NEW SUBSTANCES 8 6 1 Rapid Rapid BANG! ENERGY CHANGE CALCIUM  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry MAGNESIUM Quite Quick Rapid WATER pH7 SALT ALUMINIUM ZINC SULFATE Sulfuric Acid CHLORIDE Hydrochloric Acid NITRATE Nitric Acid Slow React with Steam Slow IRON ENDOTHERMIC Energy used and taken in EXOTHERMIC Energy produced and given out COPPER No Very Slow REVERSIBLE REACTIONS Can go both waysSILVER No GOLD No N2 + 3H2 2NH3 DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS RATE(Speed) OF REACTION Reactions happen when particles collide. BUT they must collide hard enough. More collisions or harder collisions = Faster reaction. More reactive metals displace Less reactive metals from their compounds. BIG DIFFERENCE = FAST REACTION TEMPERATURE ALL REACTIONS Higher Temp Faster Particles Harder Collisions Faster Reaction Faster Reaction More Collis ions More Particles More Conc REACTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS REACTIONS WITH SOLIDS Small Pieces More Surface More Collisions Faster Reaction CONCENTRATION SURFACE AREACATALYST SOME REACTIONS Catalyst not used up. Less energy needed More collisions succeed Study and revision skills ENZYMES Special Biological Catalysts in Living things. 11 c 12 BAUXITE ROCK Crust HEMATITE REDUCTION MALACHITE BLAST FURNACE ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN OXIDE ALUMINIUM IRON LIME O2 STEEL CHEMISTRY SECTION THREE THE EARTH RAW MATERIALS N2 AIR O2 CO2 WATER H2O Photosynthesis Breathing IGNEOUS LIMESTONE HE AT  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry S U N SEDIMENTARY BLAST FURNACE + PURIFICATION BY ELECTROLYSIS Decay ering Erosion eat W sport Deposi an nta tio Tr Ceme tion n PLANTS Cooling Heat Pressure COPPER ANIMALS Death MAGMA METAMORPHIC M elti n g HALITE RockSalt NITRIC ACID LIME CEMENT GLASS SLAKED LIME CO2 O2 FOSSIL FUELS NITRATES IN SOIL NATURAL GAS AMMONIUM NITRATE N2 ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTION HABER PROC ESS AMMONIA NITRIC ACID FERTILISER COAL PETROLEUM COKE HYDROGEN Fuel CHLORINE Water Treatment SODIUM HYDROXIDE Soap. BLEACH FUEL +or ELECTRICITY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION ALKENES GAS PETROL NAPHTHA KEROSINE DIESEL LUBRICATING OIL FUEL OIL BITUMEN CRACKING PLASTICSStudy and revision skills The glossary – words are important Chemistry can be said to have a language of its own. As for the other sciences, there are special terms that need to be understood and remembered – an ‘atom’ is not the same thing as an ‘ion’ or a ‘molecule’. There are also some words that have a different slant on their meaning in chemistry. For example, saying that ethanol is ‘volatile’ does not mean that it is about to ‘freak out’, simply that it evaporates easily. Throughout the textbook, you will find words that have been highlighted in red bold type.It would be useful to make a note of these and make sure that you are clear about th eir meaning. A glossary of these important chemical terms is also provided at the end of the book. The same glossary is also provided on this CD. If your first language is not English – and possibly even if it is – it would be useful to keep your own ‘chemical vocabulary’ book to help you to learn and understand the terms used in this subject. This should help you to understand questions clearly and not get tied up in confusing ‘waffle’ in your answers.  © Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry Study and revision skills 13